BUDDHIST SCULPTURE OF KOREA

Kim Lena
Buddhist Sculpture in the Three Kingdoms
The introduction of Buddhism to Korea was one of the most important factors in the formation of early Korean art. Buddhism attained great popularity and actively stimulated the production of sculpture and the construction of temples and pagodas throughout the Korean peninsula Buddhism and Buddhist art originated in India, passed through and developed in various Buddhist centers in Central Asia and China and reached Korea in the late fourth century during the Three Kingdoms period.
During this period, a large number of Buddhist monks went to China to study Buddhist doctrine They returned with Buddhist texts, images and other religious objecu Thus the development of Korean Buddhist images is indebted to Chinese prototypes and is often traced back to Central Asian or Indian models. However, Korean artists were selective favoring certain prototypes and developing them into distinctly Korean forms which reflect native, artistic traditions and regional differences.
The propagation of the Buddhism in Korea occurred under the patronage of the royal court and ruling aristocracy Large temples were constructed, and many images were created for worship. Buddhist ceremonies were held in the belief that religious faith, temple building, and icon making would guarantee the well-being of devout believers, society and the state, to afford protection from iLlness, natural disaster or foreign invasion, and to prornise rebirth in the Buddhist paradise.
When Buddhism was first introduced to Korea, imported images must have been worshiped, but these were soon superseded by locallyproduced images. The earliest extant Korean Buddhist images date from the sixth century, the oldest being a gilt-bronze Buddha discovered at Uiryong in South Kyongsang Province The inscription on the back of its aureole indicates it was made in 539 AD. during the Koguryo period
Buddhist triads consisting of a central Buddha figure flanked by two attendant Bodhisattvas were among the most popular images during the second half of the 6th century A fine example of these triads is the Rock-cut Buddha Triad found in Sosan, South Ch'ungch'ong Province part of the ancient Paekche Kingdom The three figures are carved in high relief on a huge rock facing east.
Early Korean Buddhist images often radiate a feeling of intimacy and warmth in their kindly facial expressions. The element of warmth is especiaLly evident in Paekche Buddhist images, as seen in a smaD soapstone seated Buddha and the Sosan Rock-cut Buddha triad
Of the many meditating Bodhisattva images extant from the Three Kingdoms period two large gilt bronze figures dating from around the year 600 are perhaps the most impressive Both reflect the heights achieved in bronze casting during this period and are unsurpassed in their finely modelled facial features and harmonious interplay of form between the round body and freeflowing garment folds. The so-caLled "half-seated" meditative pose is said to have originated as the irnage of Prince Siddhartha which was later developed into a tradition of meditative figures of Maitreya, reflecting the popularity of his cult
Images representing the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara were widely worshipped during the Three Kingdoms period This Bodhisattva can be recognized by a smaLI seated Buddha depicted in its crown, which symbolizes that Avalokitesvara is an attendant to the Amitabha Buddha and helps beings reach the Amitabha Buddha's Western Paradise
From the mid-seventh century naturalistic depictions became more common in Korean Buddhist sculpture There was a greater interest in the modeDing of three-dimensional forms and in a more organic and balanced proportioning of the head and body of a figure These progressive stylistic features seem to have been more readily developed by artists working in the smaLler medium of bronze than by those working in stone
The tendency toward simplicity in form, more voluminous modelling of the face and body and a reduced number of garment folds was also a haLlmark of images of Buddha during this period One of the earliest examples of the progressive seventh century style is the standing gilt-bronze Buddha discovered in Yangp'yong, north of SeouL This early seventh century figure draped in robes faLling in gentle fold$ recalls the sculptural tradition of late Oi or early Sui China but ultimately reflects the casuaL free and open-hearted spirit of the Korean people.

Buddhist Sculpture in the Unified Silla Period
When Silla unified the Three Kingdoms in 668, Buddhism enjoyed continued prosperity and was a prominent aspect of both religious life and artistic aeativity of the period.
Several artistic elements contributed to the development of Buddhist art during the Unified Silla period. Silla's indigenous local tradition continued to provide an important aesthetic base, and to this foundation were added artistic traditions inherited from the deposed kingdoms of Paekche and Koguryo. New ideas also came from Tang China, which was then the cosmopolitan center of Buddhist culture in East Asia, bringing Silla into the international arena of cultural exchanges in which Buddhist monks and merchants from Central Asia, India and as far away as Persia intermingled in the propagation of the Buddhist faith and the promotion of trade. By the late 7th century many Silla monks had ventured on pilgrimages to India, either overland through Central Asia or by the sea route around Southeast Asia.
Buddhist images during the Unified Silla period were made with great refinement Forms were full and rounded, the proportions of the body were harmonious, and an interest in realistic modelling became prominent. The gold Buddha image discovered inside a pagoda at the Kuhwang dong temple site in Kyongju is a fine example of early 8th century Buddhist art This image as well as a standing Medicine Buddha, display finely modelled facial features as well as a mastery of metal casting in the realistic representation of drapery folds and in the openwork carving on the mandorLa
Of the early 8th century stone images, those found at the Kamsansa temple site in Kyongiu are outstanding for their fine stone carving technique. The figures, mandorla and bases are all carved from a single piece of granite. The statues are also important for their inscriptions which identify the figures as Amitabha Buddha and Bodhisattva Maitreya and indicate that Kim Chi-song, a retired officiaL commissioned the images to be made in 719 Buddha. these
Kamsansa images reflect Tang stylistic influences but their iconographic prototypes are derived from Indian or lnPntrnl Asim malels.
The finest stone sculptures of 8th-century Silla are undoubtedly the images in the cave temple of Sokkuram in Kyongju. At the center of the round hall is the main Buddha image seated high on a lotus throne. It is imposing in size, majestic in posture and divine in appearance. Relief images of Bodhisattva$ Brahma and Indra are in elegant postures depicted with subtle modelling of the forms. The Buddha's ten disciples are depicted with individualized facial features and expressions, and the Four Directional Guardians are carved on either side of the corridor leading to the main halL Other guardian images are carved on the walLs of the anteroom. This cave temple enshrining images of the Buddhist Pantheon is a small replica of the Buddha Land and its construction marks the high point of the SiLla Kingdom's artistic achievements, reflecting the deep devotional nature of that flourishing Buddhist state.
The production of seated Buddha images with the Buddha's hand in the earth-touching gesture symbolizing enlightenment, such as the Sokkuram Buddha was widespread in late Unified Silla This iconography comes from India but seems to have received special attention in Late 7th century Tang China probably due to renewed contacts with the Indian Buddhist world after the famous pilgrim Xuanzang's return to China
By the Uth century there was an aesthetic decline in the sculptural tradition represented by the Sokkuram Buddha The treatment of garment folds had become stereotyped and there was no longer any interest in modelling of the body Also one senses a Lack of the religious depth that was so prominent in earlier sculptures.
In late Unified Silla, a new type of Buddha image, that of the Buddha Vairocana began to appear. Vairocana is distinguished by his unique hand gesture in which the five fingers of the right hand hold the index finger of the left finger. This figure first appeared in Huayen Buddhism and was further developed in Esoteric Buddhism as the Supreme Buddhist Deity and the Great Illuminator whose body speech and thought make up the life of the universe. Many images of this Buddha were made in stone and in iron during the ninth century In Korea these statues were especially worshiped in temples where Buddhists practiced Son (Zen)Bud&m. which stresses meditation for the attainment of enlightenment.
With the decline of Tang influence in the late Unified Silla period, Korea turned inward for inspiration in the creation of new images, and distinctively native sculptural traditions began to evolve on the peninsula.
The Koryo Period
Like the Unified Silla the Koryo Kingdom also patronized Buddhism as the state religiorL Many temples were constructed, Buddhist images multiplied, and complete sets of Buddhist texts were carved on wood blocks for printing. The latter was an act of supreme piety meant to insure the well-being and protection of the nation from disaster and foreign invasions. Buddhist worship flourished not only in the capital city of Kaesong but also in various local centers and enjoyed the patronage of the rcyal family the newly-risen Koryo officials and the deposed but nevertheless powerful Silla aristocrats.
Koryo sculptures vary in the quality of their workmanship. Many images were of high quality cast in bronze, while iron and stone became a popular media for larger statues which tended to be less articulated in their modelling. Some stone statues were carved in such shallow relief that often only the contour of the image is recognizable from the surface of the stone
In the early years of the Koryo Kingdom, the Unified Silla sculptural tradition lingered on, as revealed in the large iron seated Buddha found at a temple site in Ch'ungung-ni in Kyonggi province. This figure generally follows the stylistic features of the central image in the Sokkuram cave temple in its hand gestures, draping of the folds in the figure's clothing and the aoss-legged seated posture
A fine example of early Koryo sculpture is the marble Bodhisattva from the Hansongsa temple site in Kangnung, Kangwon Province The statue features voluminous modelling on its plump face and rounded body and in the deep carving of the necklace and scarves These features were probably inspired by Chinese images from the late Tang or Five Dynasties periods.
Stone sculptures from the Koryo period tend to be almost overpoweringly large The Unified Silla sculptural tradition persisted but changed gradually as purely Koryo elements developed.
Several bronze statues of fine workmanship survive from the late Koryo period. Most representative of these is the gilt bronze seated Medicine Buddha or Bhaisajyaguru, image at Changgoksa Temple Balanced in bodily proportions, with naturally flowing garment folds and a benevolent facial expression, this 14th century statue marks the high point of Koryo bronze casting. An examination of the interior of this statue yielded many objects including copies of sutras, colored textiles and a cloth with an ink insaiption indicating that this figure was cast in the year 546.
The Choson Period
The Choson Kingdom witnessed the decline of Buddhism as Confucianism was introduced as the state religion. However, private devotion to Buddhism persisted, and Buddhist images continued to be produced. Many of the images worshipped in Korean temples today date from the late Choson Kingdom. They are made from a variety of materials but bronze and wood seem to have been the preferred media.
Of the many wooden sculptures from the Choson period, a popular genre were the wooden relief panels carved with Buddhist images which were placed behind the alter like a Buddhist painting. The shape and expressions of the faces of the figures and the folds in the drapery were quite stereotyped and lacked in individuality The somewhat heavier carving and the stylization are typical of Buddhist sculpture in the late Choson period.
Faith in Buddhist teachings remains very much alive today in the minds of many Koreans. Thus Bud&t images will continue to be made, forever reflecting the unpretentious charm, human warmth, and carefree spirit of the Korean people.